MDPI AG Acta Medica Okayama 2076-3921 14 12 2025 Roles of ROS and NO in Plant Responses to Individual and Combined Salt Stress and Waterlogging 1455 EN Taufika Islam Anee Department of Materials and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Sophia University Nasser A. Sewelam Botany Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University Nonnatus S. Bautista Institute of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Los Baños Takashi Hirayama Institute of Plant Science and Resources, Okayama University Nobuhiro Suzuki Department of Materials and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Sophia University During the climate change era, plants are increasingly exposed to multiple environmental challenges occurring simultaneously or sequentially. Among these, salt stress and waterlogging are two major factors that severely constrain crop productivity worldwide and often occur together. To survive under such conditions, plants have evolved sophisticated systems to scavenge harmful levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Despite their cytotoxic potential, ROS also act as key signaling molecules that interact with nitric oxide (NO), Ca2+, protein kinases, ion homeostasis pathways, and plant hormones. These signaling and acclimatory mechanisms are closely associated with the functions of energy-regulating organelles\chloroplasts and mitochondria\which are major sources of ROS under both individual and combined stresses. While many of these responses are shared between salt stress, waterlogging and their combination, it is likely that specific signaling mechanisms are uniquely activated when both stresses occur together\mechanisms that cannot be inferred from responses to each stress alone. Such specificity may depend on precise coordination among organelle-derived signals and the tight regulation of their cross-communication. Within this network, ROS and NO likely serve as central hubs, fine-tuning the integration of multiple signaling pathways that enable plants to adapt to complex and fluctuating stress environments. No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.